Kiwifruit
Author(s)
Costa, Guglielmo
Manganaris, George Α.
Xylogiannis, Evangelos
Date Issued
2026
Type
bookPart
Volume
8
Start Page
323
End Page
370
Abstract
Commercial cultivation of kiwifruit started less than a century ago, and the industry has evolved and undergone many changes since then. For many years, commercial production was based solely on the cultivar Hayward (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa). Uniquely amongst fruit, international trade in kiwifruit was limited to the fruit of this one cultivar with its brown hairy skin and green flesh. Nowadays, yellow-fleshed kiwifruit (A. chinensis var. chinensis) are available to most consumers worldwide, while red-fleshed kiwifruit (also A. chinensis var. chinensis) are important in China and are becoming more available elsewhere. Fruit of these new cultivars differ in flavor as well as in appearance and are often preferred by consumers. Kiwifruit orchards initially seemed relatively pest- and disease-free, but as orchards expanded and became more productive, problems emerged. The most serious of these was the bacterial canker epidemic (Psa) caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae. This affected kiwifruit worldwide, particularly some cultivars of A. chinensis var. chinensis. Psa rendered continued cultivation of the New Zealand yellow-fleshed cultivar Hort16A uneconomic. Fortunately, other yellow-fleshed cultivars have proved more resistant. Kiwifruit vine decline syndrome (KVDS) first appeared in some parts of Italy about 15 years ago. It causes vines to collapse 2 to 3 years after symptoms first appear. The causes, and hence solutions, are not yet fully established. Commercial kiwifruit cultivation started in New Zealand and, as cultivation spread to other countries, the cultivars grew and management practices used in New Zealand were adopted. Differences in climate in these countries have encouraged changes. A much wider range of cultivars is grown in China, by now the far greatest producer globally, even if it is not important in kiwifruit international trade. Kiwifruit are grown there over a wide geographic range and under different climatic conditions. “Climate change” is now a recognized worldwide phenomenon that is affecting areas suitable for kiwifruit cultivation and management techniques used. For example, in some areas, the rise in winter temperatures means that chilling requirements are not fully satisfied, and the higher spring-summer temperatures complicate management. Furthermore, the increases in frequency and intensity of some climatic events (e.g., hailstorms, rainfall, drought) create difficulties. Despite such difficulties, the outlook of many industries remains positive. The New Zealand kiwifruit industry is currently optimistic, and there are rapid increases in plantations and hence production in countries such as Greece, Iran, and Turkey. The introduction of new yellow- and red-fleshed cultivars, often a result of breeding programs, has been welcomed by many consumers and has enhanced returns to the growers. Better knowledge of the kiwifruit genome at the molecular level should help the creation of cultivars that tolerate diseases that currently afflict kiwifruit and, it is hoped, some of the negative effects caused by climate change. We know much more about when to harvest and store fruit, allowing it to be sold in an excellent state of preservation and ripeness even in distant markets that are willing to adequately pay for premium quality. In kiwifruit orchards, effective management of irrigation and nutrition is essential for optimizing resource use and mitigating environmental impact. To follow an optimal orchard management plan, it is necessary to continuously monitor soil and environmental conditions. The development of image-analysis methods, coupled with smart computers for grading and sorting, should limit product losses and extend kiwifruit cool-storage life. The development of robotic systems for the main cultivation techniques (pruning, pollination, and fruit thinning) and harvesting might become routine in the near future and alleviate shortages of labor.